third_party: update libcurl from 7.80.0 to 7.83.0

Changelog: https://curl.se/changes.html#7_83_0

Curl replaced prefix CURL_ with CMAKE_ in private identifiers [1] since
the 'CMAKE_' prefix is reserved for CMake's own private use, see [2].

Patch adds a number of options defined in curl build infrastructure with
their default values used in 7.83.0.

1. https://github.com/curl/curl/commit/9108da2c26d18e927b91e33d3729d9cf0f3eb8fa
2. https://cmake.org/cmake/help/latest/manual/cmake-variables.7.html

NO_DOC=libcurl submodule bump
NO_TEST=libcurl submodule bump

Follows up #6029